'. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


// 


cieniife  Skjwols  in 


CONSIDERED    IN    REFERENCE    TO    THEIR    PREVALENCE, 
UTILITY.   SCOPE  AND  DESIRABILITY  IN  AMERICA. 


BY  DANIEL  C.  GILMAN,  A.  M. 


[From  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education,  March,  1856. 


t|00I$  in 


CONSIDERED    IN    REFERENCE    TO    THEIR    PREVALENCE, 
UTILITY,  SCOPE  AND  DESIRABILITY"  IN  AMERICA. 


BY  DANIEL  C.  OILMAN,  A.  M. 


[From  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education,  March,  1856. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS  IN  EUROPE, 

BY  DANIEL  C.  OILMAN,  A.  M.,  NEW  HAVEN  CONN. 


EVERT  American  who  studies  the  educational  systems  of  Europe, 
remarks  with  surprise  the  universal  prevalence  of  schools  intended 
for  instruction  in  theoretical  and  practical  science. 

In  contrast  with  his  own  country,  where  until  quite  recently,  ar- 
rangements have  been  made  for  the  special  training  of  but  three  pro- 
fessions, known  in  consequence  as  "  the  learned  professions,"  he  finds 
that  abroad,  definite  courses  of  instruction,  equally  thorough  and  sys- 
tematic, are  provided  for  engineers,  architects,  miners,  chemists,  farm- 
ers, foresters,  and  the  like.  Educational  institutions  for  these  objects 
are  not  confined  to  any  one  country.  France,  Prussia,  Austria,  and 
the  smaller  German  states,  Russia,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Belgium,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Greece,  and  recently  England,  have  all  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  such  schools.  For  their  liberal  maintenance,  annual 
appropriations  are  made  by  the  state  with  as  much  regularity  as  in 
this  land  for  the  support  of  Common  Schools. 

The  usefulness  of  such  institutions,  wherever  they  have  been  com- 
menced, is  unanimously  admitted.  The  material  prosperity  of  many 
European  countries  is  manifestly  dependent  upon  the  extent  and 
character  of  their  systems  of  scientific  education. 

In  illustration  of  this  point,  let  a  few  instances  be  cited.  Notwith- 
standing various  adverse  circumstances,  the  limited  extent  of  its  mines 
of  iron  and  coal,  its  long  protracted  and  oft  repeated  wars,  and  its 
frequent  changes  in  government,  France  holds  the  foremost  place 
among  enlightened  nations.  It  excels  in  the  perfection  of  manufac- 
tured articles,  in  the  triumphs  of  modern  architecture,  in  the  con- 
struction of  rail  roads,  in  the  administration  of  its  mines,  in  the  supe- 
riority of  its  army,  in  the  diffusion  of  elegance  and  taste,  and  in  the 
general  enjoyment  of  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  civilized  life.  All 
this  is  owing  in  a  great  measure  to  the  number  and  variety  of  those 
institutions  in  which  scientific  investigations  are  encouraged  or  ap- 
plied. The  capital  has  its  Polytechnic  Institution,  its  Conservatoire 
of  Arts  and  Trades,  its  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures,  its 
Academies  of  Pesign,  and  of  the  Fine  Arts,  its  Engineering  School 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS. 

for  Roads  and  Bridges,  its  Garden  of  Plants,  with  museums  and 
courses  of  lectures,  its  School  of  Miners,  besides  the  various  scien- 
tific chairs  established  in  the  university.  While  Paris  is  thus  provi- 
ded with  schools  for  the  highest  kind  of  instruction,  the  provincial 
cities  and  towns  have  their  subordinate  institutions,  often  directed  by 
the  graduates  of  the  metropolitan  establishments.  Thus,  throughout 
the  whole  empire,  industrial  education  is  provided ;  sometimes  of  a 
theoretical  character,  and  sometimes  exceedingly  practical,  as  in  the 
schools  of  weaving,  at  Lyons  and  Nismes,  of  ship  building  at  La  Ro- 
chelle,  and  of  lace  making  at  Dieppe. 

The  little  kingdom  of  Saxony  affords  another  good  illustration  of 
the  effects  of  industrial  training.  Apparently  shut  out  by  its  interior 
position  from  all  foreign  commerce,  and  suffering  from  an  over- 
crowded population,  the  country  is  prosperous  and  happy,  its  trade  is 
active,  its  manufactures  celebrated,  its  fields  well  tilled,  its  mines  well 
worked.  The  cause  of  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  Polytechnic 
School  at  Dresden,  the  Forest  School  at  Tharandt,  and  the  Mining 
Academy  at  Freiberg,  are  all  institutions  of  a  superior  order,  the  in- 
fluence of  which  is  not  only  directly  exerted  upon  the  material  wel- 
fare of  the  country,  but  also  indirectly,  by  supplying  a  multitude  of 
schools  of  lower  grades,  with  properly  trained  instructors.  It  is  sur- 
prising to  notice  the  number  of  these  industrial  seminaries.  According 
to  Dr.  Barnard,*  Saxony,  with  a  population  about  equal  to  that  of 
Connecticut,  Massachusets,  and  Rhode  Island,  had  a  short  time  since,  • 
a  university  with  85  professors,  and  835  students ;  six  academies  of  the 
arts  and  of  mining,  with  43  instructors,  and  1400  pupils ;  eleven 
gymnasia ;  six  higher  burgher  and  real  schools ;  three  special  institu- 
tions of  commerce  and  military  affairs,  with  43  teachers  and  240 
pupils ;  nine  normal  schools ;  seventeen  higher  schools  of  industry 
or  technical  schools,  with  72  teachers  and  779  pupils;  sixty-nine 
lower  technical  schools  with  nearly  7000  pupils ;  and  24  schools  of 
lace  making,  with  37  teachers  and  nearly  2000  pupils ;  in  addition 
to  more  than  two  thousand  common  schools,  a  large  number  of  private 
schools,  and  public  establishments  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  other  unfor- 
tunate persons. 

The  experience  of  Belgium,  sometimes  called  "  The  work-shop  of 
Europe,"  confirms  the  importance  of  industrial  and  scientific  educa- 
tion. According  to  Dr.  Playfair,  one  hundred  of  its  leading  manu- 
facturers have  been  trained  in  the  elevated  course  of  the  Central 
School  in  Paris,  while  the  Belgian  institutions  themselves  have 
been  well  attended,  and  have  given  to  still  larger  numbers  of  men 

*  National  Education  in  Europe.    Page  260. 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS.  317 

engaged  in  industrial  pursuits,  education  of  a  superior  order.  In  the 
Engineering  school  of  Ghent,  the  Mining  school  of  Liege,  and  the 
various  Agricultural  institutions,  the  highest  principles  of  science  are 
taught  in  their  applications  to  industry,  with  evident  benefit  to  the 
whole  material  prospects  of  all  the  country. 

The  experience  of  Russia  may  likewise  be  cited.  Notwithstanding 
that  the  empire  is  deficient  in  the  means  of  popular  education,  a  sys- 
tem of  technical  instruction  has  been  inaugurated  in  the  capital, 
which  is  exerting  a  most  important  influence  upon  the  development 
of  the  country.  The  results  of  the  training  which  is  given  in  the 
schools  at  St.  Petersburg,  of  applied  theoretical  science,  were  evinced 
in  the  remarkable  contributions  from  Russia,  exhibited  in  the  Crystal 
Palace,  at  London,  in  1851,  and  drew  forth  a  general  acknowledgement 
that  schools  of  Mines,  of  Agriculture,  of  Forestry,  and  the  Poly- 
technic Institute,  have  already  effected  the  useful  arts  in  that  country, 
to  an  extent  which  is  surpassed  only  by  the  influence  which  the  ad- 
mirable schools  of  military  science  have  had  upon  the  arms  of  the 
empire. 

Prussia,  Austria,  and  the  lesser  powers  of  Germany,  likewise  unite 
in  testifying  that  the  agricultural  and  manufacturing  prosperity  of 
those  countries,  other  things  being  equal,  has  been  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  efficiency  of  their  schools  of  special  training. 

What  now  has  been  the  consequence  of  an  opposite  course  of  pro- 
cedure, to  that  pursued  in  the  nations  that  have  been  mentioned  ? 
It  is  not  necessary  to  refer  to  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  where  sci- 
entific education,  although  commenced,  is  still  far  behindhand. 
England,  commercial  and  industrial  England,  may  be  brought  up  as 
an  illustration  of  the  bad  effects  of  neglecting  industrial  instruction. 
Its  mines  of  coal  and  iron,  and  other  metals,  the  foundation  of  man- 
ufacturing success,  are  abundant,  its  inhabitants  are  eminently  prac- 
tical, its  institutions,  are  free  ;  all  this  tending  to  the  maintenance  of  its 
once  preeminent  position  in  the  world  of  industrial  art.  But  what  is 
its  real  condition  ?  Without  quoting  the  expressions  of  M.  Cocquiel, 
a  Belgian  gentleman,  commissioned  to  study  the  establishments  of 
Great  Britain,  nor  those  of  other  foreign  observers,  who  might  be  in- 
fluenced by  jealousy  or  hostility,  it  is  quite  enough  to  say  that  Eng- 
lishmen the  best  qualified  to  judge,  agreed  at  the  close  of  the  Lon- 
don Exhibition  of  1851,  that  Great  Britain  was  losing  its  relative 
position ;  and  instead  of  remaining  superior  in  manufacturing  skill 
to  all  nations  upon  the  continent,  was  in  danger  of  becoming  in- 
ferior to  many.  The  Royal  Commissioners  of  the  World's  Fair, 
even  went  so  far  as  to  state  in  their  Report  to  the  Crown,  that  Eng- 

VOL.  I,  No.  3.— 22. 


318  SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS. 

land  "would  lose  its  strength  and  pride"  unless  some  new  measures 
should  be  taken  for  instruction  in  theoretical  and  practical  science. 
Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  of  London,  a  gentleman  distinguished  for  his  high 
attainments  and  wide  observation,  in  a  lecture  on  the  results  of  the 
English  exhibition,  took  for  his  especial  theme,  "  Chemical  Manufac- 
tures, as  indicating  the  necessity  of  Industrial  Education."  Among 
other  things  he  remarks,  "  The  result  of  the  exhibition,  was  one  that 
England  may  well  be  startled  at.  Wherever,  and  (that  implies  in 
almost  every  manufacture,)  Science,  or  Art,  was  involved  as  an  element 
of  progress,  we  saw  as  an  inevitable  law,  that  the  nation  which  most 
cultivated  them  was  in  the  ascendant.  Our  manufacturers  were  justly 
astonished  at  seeing  most  of  the  foreign  countries  rapidly  approach- 
ing, and  sometimes  excelling  us  in  manufactures,  our  own  by  heredi- 
tary and  traditional  right."  In  surgical  instruments,  and  some  kind 
of  edge  tools ;  in  swords  and  guns ;  in  plate  and  flint  glass ;  in 
woolens  ;  in  calico  printing  and  paper  staining ;  in  china  and  porce- 
lain ;  and  even  in  hardware,  the  lecturer  acknowledged  that  England 
if  not  surpassed,  was  closely  rivaled  by  nations  once  obviously  in  the 
rear.  As  a  remedy  for  all  this  he  forcibly  urges  "  Instruction  in 
Science,"  upon  the  attention  of  the  people  of  Great  Britain. 

A  few  months  afterward,  Dr.  Playfair  visited  the  Scientific  Schools 
of  the  continent,  and  in  making  known  their  admirable  features  to 
the  people  of  England,  he  showed  conclusively  that  the  "  experience  " 
in  manufacturing,  which  his  own  countrymen  self-confidently  relied 
on,  was  immediately  made  use  of  by  foreign  states,  and  diffused, 
moreover,  by  what  was  wholly  neglected  in  England,  industrial  edu- 
cation. Consequently,  the  continent,  he  says,  has  a  growing  element 
in  production,  we  a  decreasing. 

The  practical  character  of  the  English  was  never  better  illustrated 
than  by  the  manner  in  which  this  humiliating  lesson  of  their  indus- 
trial inferiority  was  received  throughout  the  kingdom.  There  was 
no  denial  of  the  truth,  no  avoidance  of  the  remedy.  The  Board  of 
Trade  was  immediately  authorized  to  organize  a  Department  of  Science 
and  Art,  to  which  a  Parliamentary  appropriation  of  £80,000  was 
made,  for  the  expenses  of  last  year  and  by  means  of  which  elevated 
instruction  in  theoretical  and  practical  science  will  soon  be  liberally 
provided. 

Having  thus  alluded  to  the  general  establishment  in  Europe  of 
Schools  of  special  training  and  their  acknowledged  advantages,  it  is 
important,  before  enquiring  what  lessons  our  own  country  should  de- 
rive from  them,  to  distinguish  between  the  different  kinds  of  educa- 
tional establishments  to  which  the  term  "  Industrial,"  is  applied. 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS.  319 

The  terminology  as  well  as  the  system  of  education  varies  in  different 
countries,  but  in  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  industrial  schools 
are  of  three  kinds,  intended  for  the  wants  of  different  social  ranks. 
The  lowest  of  these  are  schools  for  children  so  poor  or  degraded  that 
they  are  not  able  or  ought  not  to  give  up  work  for  study,  but  who 
may  be  taught  to  read,  write,  and  cipher,  while  acquiring  the  rudi- 
ments of  some  simple  trade.  A  second  class  of  these  industrial 
schools,  is  intended  for  pupils  who  have  received  a  good  elementary 
education,  and  who  are  willing,  either  at  its  close,  or  during  its  pro- 
gress, to  spend  some  time  in  special  training  for  their  future  occupa- 
tions. Such  scholars,  without  entering  upon  the  highest  branches  of 
science,  become  familiar  with  the  applied  laws  of  chemistry,  mechan- 
ics, and  the  like;  and  can  immediately  command  in  the  mine,  the 
work-shop,  or  the  field,  far  higher  positions  than  those  who  have 
merely  received  a  so-called  practical  education. 

The  highest  class  of  special  schools  have,  sometimes,  when  based 
upon  independent  foundations,  received  the  name  of  "  industrial  uni- 
versities," and  at  other  times  have  been  recognized  in  the  highest  in- 
stitutions, as  legitimate  parts  of  the  philosophical  faculty,  coordinate 
with  schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology.  These  alone  deserve 
the  name  of  "  scientific  schools."  In  many  countries,  the  degrees  or 
certificates  which  they  grant,  are  far  more  essential  to  success  in  va- 
rious practical  callings,  than  good  diplomas  or  fair  examinations  are 
in  this  country,  for  admittance  to  the  bar,  the  pulpit,  or  the  faculty  of 
medicine. 

The  thorough  and  yet  comprehensive  character  of  the  instruction 
that  is  given  in  these  scientific  schools,  is  worthy  of  remark,  in  con- 
trast with  what  has  thus  far  been  provided  in  our  own  country.  The 
utmost  which  has  been  done  in  our  institutions,  has  been  to  establish 
a  professorship  of  agriculture,  or  a  professorship  of  engineering ;  but 
in  the  best  continental  institutions  such  sciences  would  be  considered  as 
demanding  the  attention  of  several  well  trained  men ;  and  in  some  coun- 
tries would  each  be  taught  in  a  separate  school  with  several  professors, 
and  all  the  necessary  accompaniments  of  buildings  and  apparatus.  For 
any  one  man  to  be  willing  to  "profess"  a  knowledge  of  two  such 
sciences  as  "  mining  "  and  "  metallurgy  "  would  in  Germany  be  con- 
sidered an  indication  of  emptiness  of  mind  or  emptiness  of  purse. 

But  these  remarks  will  be  better  understood  by  a  more  particular 
reference  to  one  or  two  callings  in  life,  and  the  preparation  required 
for  entrance  upon  them.  Let  us  take  for  example,  the  profession  of 
architecture.  Whoever  wishes  to  enter  upon  it  in  our  country,  seeks 
admission  to  the  office  of  some  man  of  acknowledged  reputation, 


320  SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS. 

where  in  the  most  desultory  manner,  he  is  allowed  to  pick  up  such 
items  of  information  as  he  can,  relating  to  his  future  calling.  The  most 
which  he  can  command  in  any  college  or  university  of  this  country, 
is  instruction  in  those  principles  of  engineering,  which  are  applicable  to 
architecture.  After  pursuing  such  a  course,  as  long  as  it  is  agreeable 
to  him,  he  opens  an  office  of  his  own,  and  commences  in  a  half  pre- 
pared manner,  to  practice  his  profession.  Is  it  any  matter  of  wonder 
that  ambitious  and  costly  edifices,  wholly  wanting  in  good  taste,  and 
combining  all  orders  of  architecture  in  no  order  of  arrangement, 
abound  in  this  country ;  that  legislative  and  other  public  bodies, 
church  and  school  trustees,  as  well  as  private  persons,  are  continually 
misled  by  the  estimated  cost  of  buildings  which  they  wish  to  con- 
struct, and  that  serious  errors  are  often  made  in  so  fundamental  a 
matter  as  the  strength  and  stress  of  materials  ?  All  this  might  be 
remedied  by  such  an  architectural  school  as  there  is  in  Berlin,  or  even 
by  such  architectural  instruction  as  is  given  in  the  Polytechnic 
schools  of  many  other  cities. 

The  Royal  Prussian  Architectural  Academy  was  established  by  the 
ministry  of  commerce,  agriculture,  and  public  works,  as  an  expansion 
of  the  architectural  school  which  had  previously  existed.  Its  num- 
ber of  pupils  is  not  far  from  1*75,  for  whose  instruction  there  are  19 
regular  professors.  Seven  "  extraordinary  "  instructors  announced  their 
courses  for  the  winter  of  1854-5.  The  subjects  which  are  taught  in 
their  relations  to  architecture,  are  the  following  : — 

Physics,  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  the  nature  of  Materials,  Descrip- 
tive Geometry,  Perspective,  Analytical  Geometry,  Statics,  Hydrostatics, 
Mechanics,  Hydraulics,  Aerodynamics,  Machinery,  Laws  of  construc- 
ting all  parts  of  edifices  and  machines,  the  Monuments  of  Antiquity, 
and  the  Comparative  History  of  Architecture,  Architectural  Machine 
drawing  in  its  full  extent,  the  Construction  of  Roads,  Rail  Roads, 
and  Canals,  Country,  City,  and  Ornamental  Architecture,  the  Plans, 
Calculations,  and  Estimates  for  all  kinds  of  building,  higher  Geodesy 
and  the  management  of  Architectural  business. 

The  annual  income  of  this  magnificent  institution  is  about  21.000 
thalers,  which  may  be  considered  as  representing  a  capital  of  not  less 
than  350.000  thalers,  or  245.000  dollars.  Pupils  of  advanced  educa- 
tion only  are  received  into  the  school ;  while  to  render  valuable  the  de- 
grees which  it  confers,  the  Prussian  government  recognizes  as  "  Build- 
ers,'' those  only  who  have  pursued  with  credit  a  two  years  course  of 
instruction  with  one  of  practice,  and  as  "  Architects,"  those  only  who 
have  followed  an  additional  year  of  theoretical  instruction,  and  two 
years  practice  as  builders.  Seven  years  is  the  average  time,  after 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS.  32 1 

leaving  a  gymnasium,  before  a  young  man  is  acknowledged  as  an 
"  Architect."  The  effect  of  such  regulations  and  instruction  upon  the 
architecture  of  the  country,  is  too  obvious  to  be  mentioned. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  is  doing  for  another  profession,  wholly 
neglected  in  the  educational  systems  of  this  country,  but  yet  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  our  national  prosperity,  let  the  school  of 
Miners,  in  Saxony,  be  cited.  That  celebrated  establishment,  now  in 
its  90th  year,  is  located  at  Freiberg,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
mines  of  silver,  copper,  cobalt,  lead,  &c,  Thirteen  instructors  deliver 
lectures  upon  Physics,  Chemistry,  Mineralogy,  Descriptive  and  Prac: 
tical  Geometry,  Crystallography,  Mining  Machinery,  Metallurgy,  the 
Blow  Pipe,  Geognosy,  Assaying,  Mining  jurisprudence,  Drawing,  and 
the  French  Language.  The  reputation  of  the  school  is  so  great  that 
it  is  attended  by  pupils  from  far  distant  countries  ;  and  on  the  cata- 
logue of  1854,  for  example,  will  be  found  the  names  of  scholars  from 
England,  Russia,  Sweden,  Spain,  Tuscany,  Wallachis,  Chili,  Mexico, 
and  the  United  States  of  America.  The  Mineralogies!  and  Geologi- 
cal Cabinet,  including  the  collection  of  Werner,  the  physical  and 
chemical  apparatus,  and  the  laboratories  are  ail  of  a  high  order. 

Let  us  take  another  illustration  of  the  special  instruction  which  is 
given  abroad,  in  a  school  for  a  profession  not  less  important  in  our 
own  country,  than  engineering,  or  mining,  the  profession  of  Agricul- 
ture. Every  one  knows  what  is  done,  or  what  is  not  done  for  the 
farmers  of  our  country.  In  Europe,  almost  every  state  has  its  chief 
agricultural  school,  where  scientific  instruction  is  given,  and  its 
smaller  schools  where  only  the  practical  duties  of  a  farm  are  taught. 
The  smaller  schools  can  never  live  until  the  higher  school  is  estab- 
lished. 

Among  agricultural  institutions  of  an  elevated  order,  that  at  Hohen- 
heim,  near  Stuttgardt,  was  pronounced  by  Prof.  Bache  as  the  most 
complete.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  for  practical  and  the  other 
for  scientific  instruction  ;  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  former  being 
limited  to  27,  and  that  in  the  latter  being  less  than  one  hundred.  A 
farm  of  nearly  1000  acres  is  appropriated  to  the  school,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  the  necessary  buildings  for  the  lectures  and  the  museums, 
as  well  as  for  stables,  work-shops,  beet  sugar  manufactories,  cider 
presses,  <fec.  Nine  professors  form  the  corps  of  instructors,  in  addition 
to  the  necessary  overseers  and  assistants  upon  the  farm.  Two  years 
is  generally  required  in  pursuing  the  agricultural  and  two  the  forest- 
ry *  course.  The  special  points  which  are  taken  up  are  the  follow- 

*  In  France  and  other  countries  Ions  >,,  ttk'.|,  \vh. T<-  timber  is  scarce,  it  is  a  matter  of  the 
highest  importance  for  the  •rnv.'nun. -nt  t<>  provide  for  the  protection  and  cultivation  of  for- 
ests. It  is  not.  too  early  for  portion-;  of  onr  n\\  n  country  u>  pny  attention  to  the  same  subject. 


322  SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS. 

ing :  First,  Agriculture,  the  general  principles  of  farming  and  horticul- 
ture, including  the  culture  of  the  vine,  the  breeding  of  cattle,  growing 
of  wool,  raising  of  horses,  rearing  of  Bilk-worms,  arrangement  and 
direction  of  farms,  estimation  of  the  value  of  farms.,  book-keeping ; 
Second,  Forestry,  including  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Forestry,  Botany  of 
Forests,  Culture  and  Superintendence  of  Forests,  Protection  of  Forests ; 
Uses  of  trees  for  timber,  fuel,  dyes,  &c. ;  Laws  and  Regulations  per- 
taining to  forests ; '  Third,  accessory  branches  ;  veterinary  art ;  agri- 
cultural technology,  especially  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar,  brew- 
ing, vinegar  making,  and  distilling ;  the  construction  of  roads,  drains, 
and  hydraulic  works.  Beside  these  specialties,  more  general  sciences, 
like  Geology,  Botany,  Natural  History,  Chemistry,  Physics  and 
Meteorology,  Algebra,  Trigonometry  and  Geometry,  are  all  included 
in  the  course  of  studies. 

Enough  has  now  been  said  to  show  the  extent  to  which  special 
training  may  be  carried  in  single  branches  of  applied  science.  But, 
architecture,  mining,  and  agriculture,  are  riot  the  only  departments  thus 
provided  for  in  Europe.  Engineering,  especially  in  reference  to  Roads 
and  Bridges ;  Chemistry  in  its  relations  to  the  Arts ;  the  Laws  of  Me- 
chanics ;  the  Principles  of  Design ;  Zootechny  or  the  peculiarities  and 
care  of  Animals ;  Commerce,  and  even  the  Post  Office  system  are  made 
in  different  countries  the  theme  of  long  and  systematic  study. 

Frequently,  instruction  in  several  specialties,  orfdcher,  is  given  in  the 
same  institution.  The  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  at 
Paris,  the  Trade  Institute  of  Berlin,  the  Polytechnic  Schools  of  Dresden, 
Carlsruhe,  Munich,  and  Vienna,  are  all  of  that  character.  They  really 
merit  the  designation  of  Industrial  Universities. 

The  limits  of  this  article  will  not  allow  of  an  account  of  more  than 
one  such  establishment,  and  the  first  which  has  been  named  may  be 
taken  as  a  fair  example  both  of  what  is  done  abroad  and  of  what  is 
needed  at  home.  Many  of  the  peculiarities  in  its  administration  are 
of  course  adapted  to  a  different  state  of  society  from  that  which  exists 
among  us ;  but,  its  general  system  of  organization,  providing  in  one 
establishment  for  instruction  both  in  general  science  and  in  several 
specialties,  viz. :  Mechanics,  Architecture  and  Engineering,  Mining  and 
Metallurgy,  and  Chemistry,  applied  in  all  its  branches,  including  agri 
culture,  has  already  met  with  approbation  in  this  country  in  the  plans 
of  the  Yale  and  Lawrence  Scientific  Schools. 

The  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  was  commenced  at 
Paris,  in  1829,  as  a  private  institution;  but,  its  usefulness  was  so 
great  that  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  proposed  its  adoption  by  the 
Government,  "  as  a  sequel  to  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  an  adjunct 
to  schools  for  special  arts  and  trades.'' 


SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  AT  PARIS.  323 

The  money  was  granted  by  the  Minister  in  1838,  and  in  1842  it  ap- 
pears that  nineteen  of  the  Counseils  Generaux  in  different  departments 
in  France  voted  funds  to  send  up  to  this  college  a  certain  number  of 
young  men  from  their  towns ;  and  the  Minister  had,  it  seems,  provided 
for  forty,  whose  previous  instruction  and  good  conduct,  and  the  positions 
of  their  families,  has  entitled  them  to  the  favor  of  the  State. 

The  STUDENTS  of  the  establishment  are  of  three  classes — viz.,  those  who  are 
brought  up  by  the  State  5  those  for  whom  funds  have  been  voted  by  the  Councils 
General  of  departments  5  and  those  received  at  the  expense  of  their  families. 

In  order  TO  OBTAIN  ADMISSION,  Government  and  departmental  candidates  are 
examined  at  Paris,  before  a  jury  named  by  the  Minister  of  Commerce  for  this 
purpose  each  year.  The  candidates  must  have  been  registered  and  recommended 
by  the  department  whence  they  come  5  and  they  must  prove  that  they  are  between 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  twenty-one.  They  undergo  two  examinations — one  oral, 
the  other  written  5  and  they  must  solve  with  ease  certain  problems  in  elementary 
mathematics  and  geometry.  They  must  write  and  describe  their  problems  and 
theories  well ;  draw  by  rule  and  compass ;  sketch  and  color.  Without  these 
qualifications  it  is  impossible  to  be  admitted  as  a  Government  student,  and  the 
juries  are  instructed  to  select  those  who  shew  most  literary  attainments,  and  who 
u  appear  to  have  that  deception  of  intelligence  which  promises  an  aptitude  for  in- 
dustrial science,  rather  than  mathematical  acquirements."  A  great  preference  is 
given  to  those  who  have  obtained  the  necessary  qualification  in  a  high  degree, 
and  whose  means  are  limited,  and  the  administration  is  not  to  aid  those  whose 
families  are  in  a  position  to  defray  the  expenses  of  their  education.  All  students 
may  participate  in  an  "  Encouragement  Fund"  for  the  first  year,  but  afterwards 
only  those  who  shew  the  greatest  amount  of  merit ;  and  an  augmentation  may  be 
accorded  to  those  who  are  remarkable  for  still  higher  qualities.  PRIVATE  STU- 
DENTS are  admitted  at  any  age  above  sixteen.  They,  too,  submit  to  both  oral  and 
written  examinations.  They  must  execute  certain  problems,  and  write  clearly 
and  correctly  the  theories  as  set  forth  in  the  programme.  Foreigners  as  well  as 
French  students  are  admitted,  provided  they  can  write  and  read  the  language. 
In  Paris,  these  examinations  are  made  by  a  board  named  yearly  by  the  Council  of 
Studies,  in  the  departments  by  public  professors  of  mathematics,  and  in  foreign 
countries  by  the  university  professors  5  and  all  applicants  must  produce  proper  tes- 
timonials as  to  their  morality. 

The  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SCHOOL  is  vested  in  a  director  and  a  Council  of  Studies, 
consisting  of  nine  professors.  The  director  lives  in  the  college,  and  is  charged 
with  its  administration  and  correspondence,  but  he  can  not  appoint  professors ; 
these  are  selected  for  their  practical  as  well  as  theoretical  experience.  The  Coun- 
cil admit  or  reject  candidates  after  reading  the  statement  of  their  examinations, 
and  they  report  on  the  progress  of  each  student — as  to  his  aptitude  and  capabili- 
ties, and  whether  he  is  eligible  to  be  transferred  to  a  superior  division,  or  whether 
his  friends  shall  be  requested  to  remove  him.  The  students  bind  themselves  by  a 
solemn  declaration  to  take  no  part  in  any  conspiracy  to  oppose  the  execution  of 
the  decisions  of  their  superiors,  and  they  promise  to  enter  into  no  coalition  for  im- 
posing on  the  junor  or  senior  branches  of  the  college.  No  students  are  lodged 
within  the  college,  and  they  are  not  permitted  to  wear  any  description  of 
uniform. 

The  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION  is  limited  to  three  years,  during  which  period  it  is 
obligatory.  It  includes  lectures,  daily  examinations,  drawing  and  graphic  exer- 
cises, chemical  manipulations,  working  in  stone  and  wood,  physics  and  mechanics, 
the  construction  of  buildings  and  other  works,  and  general  annual  examinations. 
The  students  are,  in  addition,  expected  to  make  notes  and  reports,  and  to  visit  the 
workshops  and  manufactories.  They  are  boarded  and  lodged  at  respectable 
houses  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  at  their  own  expense.  Each  year  there  are 
general  examinations  in  every  branch  of  science  and  art.  In  the  middle  of  the 
second  year  the  studies  are  subdivided — one  course  is  general,  the  other  has  spe- 
cial relation  to  the  ultimate  destination  of  the  scholar. 

The  specialities  are  four  in  number : — 1 .  Mechanicians.  2.  Constructors,  as 
architects,  engineers.  3.  Mining  and  metallurgy.  4.  Chemistry,  applied  in  all 


324  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  AT  PARIS. 

its  branches,  including  agriculture.  After  that  period,  the  whole  energies  of  the 
student  are  devoted  to  those  branches  of  science  on  which  the  profession  he  is 
about  to  adopt  depends. 

With  respect  to  DIPLOMAS  and  CERTIFICATES,  the  students  of  the  third  year  are 
admitted  to  competition  for  diplomas,  a  programme  of  examination  being  made 
out  for  each  speciality.  The  competitors  are  allowed  thirty-five  days  within  the 
college  to  make  out  their  designs  and  compose  their  memoir,  and  then  they  are 
examined  by  five  professors  in  public  and  before  the  students  of  two  years.  After 
the  examination,  the  professors  in  council  grant  diplomas  to  those  who  have  ex- 
celled and  who  have  passed  with  the  greatest  honors,  and  "  certificates  of  ca- 
pacity" to  those  who  have  given  less  general  proof  of  the  highest  talent.  At  each 
examination  those  who  do  not  advance  sufficiently,  or  are  idle,  are  recommended 
to  retire.  All  the  examinations  are  kept  for  reference  in  the  archives  of  the 
college. 

The  FEES  FOR  EACH  STUDENT,  including  several  extras,  are  altogether  870  francs 
($174)  per  annum.  That  the  institution  is  flourishing,  is  proved  by  its  being 
mainly  self-supporting ;  and  that  the  country  benefits  by  it,  the  long  array  of  emi 
nent  graduates  who  might  be  named  together  with  a  statement  of  their  present 
employments,  would  most  satisfactorily  illustrate. 

The  following  is  the  programme  of  instruction  somewhat  more  in  detail : 


FIRST    YEAR. 

Descriptive   Geometry.     Theory  and  application  to  perspective,  drawing,  and  shading ; 

one-cutting—details ;  carpentry— details. 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Mechanics  generally.    Theory  of  motion  and  equilibrium  of 


stone-cutting—details ;  carpentry— details. 
Analytical  Geometry  and  Mechanics  gt 
forces  ;  velocity,  acceleration,  force,  mass;  general  principles  of  motion,  gravity,  power,  ef- 


fect ;  statics  of  solid  bodies. 

Construction  of  Machines. 

Transformation  and  Modification  of  Motion. 

Physics  generally.  Laws  of  gravity,  balances,  pendulum,  and  its  application  ;  hydrosta- 
tics, hydrodynamics,  heat,  magnetism,  electricity,  electrodynamics  and  electro-magnetism, 
molecular  action,  acoustics,  light,  optics. 

For  the  first  year  the  students  are  made  to  manipulate,  in  determining  the  density  of  solids, 
liquids,  and  gasses,  the  construction  and  use  of  barometers,  thermometers,  and  hygrometers  ; 
determination  of  refractive  powers,  photometers;  power  of  rotation  in  liquids,  saccha- 
rometers. 

Chemistry  generally.  Minerals,  and  the  study  of  all  objects  not  metallic  ;  the  atmosphere, 
gasses.  Metallic ;  general  methods  for  extraction  of  metallic  oxides  ;  general  properties  of 
sulphurets,  chlorides,  &c. ;  general  properties  of  the  salts  ;  metals  useful  either  alone  or  in 
their  combination  for  the  arts. 

Organic  chemistry.  Methods  of  analysis  ;  principal  organic  products :  their  uses  in  the 
arts ;  acids,  and  their  applications. 

One  day  in  the  week  in  the  laboratory,  to  practice  the  experiments  they  have  seen  in  the 
lecture-room. 

Medicine  and  Natural  History  applied  to  Industry. 

Hygeian  Science  and  Physiology,  as  far  as  Public  Health  is  concerned  : 

First  Part.  Food,  clothing ;  influence  of  heat  and  cold  ;  dampness,  and  a  dry  atmosphere ; 
sun  and  winds;  the  health  in  different  professions;  sanitary  regulations  and  legislation. 

Second  Part. — Natural  History.  The  animal  creation  in  all  that  relates  to  industry,  the 
arts  and  agriculture ;  power,  produce,  and  nutriment.  The  vegetable  creation ;  substances 
employed  in  the  arts  ;  wood,  textiles,  cereals,  wines,  tanning,  dyes. 

Drawing  and  Design  in  its  various  Branches.  During  the  vacation,  plans  and  elevations 
of  buildings  and  works  are  executed,  which  must  be  presented  at  the  commencement  of  the 
term. 

SECOND    YEAR. 

The  same  as  the  first  year,  besides  modeling  in  plaster  for  stone-cutting,  &c. 

Industrial  Physics.  Properties  and  construction  of  furnaces  of  all  kinds  for  different  de- 
scriptions of  fuel,  transmission  of  heat,  sublimation,  distillation,  evaporisation,  heating  air  and 
liquids,  refrigeration,  lightning,  ventilation,  and  sanitary  arrangements  of  towns  ;  construc- 
tions of  all  kinds  in  model  bricks  and  plaster  of  Paris. 

During  the  recess  the  students  visit  works  and  manufactories,  and  are  obliged  to  present 
detailed  reports  on  them. 

The  students  of  the  third  year  complete  five  different  projects,  with  drawings,  calculation 
and  estimates  on  which  there  are  conferences,  one  on  each'  speciality  every  month. 

Second  and  Third  Year.  Applied  mechanics  in  great  detail,  applied  hydrodynamics,  con- 
struction and  setting  up  of  machines,  analytical  chemistry  in  different  branches  for  different 
professions,  industrial  chemistry  both  mineral  and  organic,  agricultural  chemistry. 

Public  Works.  Roads,  bridges  in  stone,  wood,  iron,  and  suspension  ;  natural  inland  navi- 
gation, artificial  inland  navigation. 

Architecture. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. 

Mining,  Working,  and  Ventilation.  Metallurgy  and  fabrication  in  iron,  steel,  zinc,  and 
copper  ;  furnaces  and  founderies  for  all  metals. 

Tethnology.    Manufacture  of  cordage  ;  stone  and  wood  sawing  ;  textile  manufactures  in 

30 


SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES  AT  PARIS.  325 

cotton.,  wool,  flax,  silk;  cotton  spinning ;  expression  of  oils;  grinding,  felting,  ceramic  works, 

Special  Courses  for  the  Third  Year.  Steam-engines  of  all  descriptions;  railways  and  dif- 
ferent systems  for  locomotion ;  the  students  visiting  the  most  important  works  with  their 
professors. 

The  students  are  examined  daily  upon  the  subjects  of  their  lectures,  by  the  pro- 
lessors  and  repeaters  (Repetiteurs.)  The  utility  of  this  latter  class  of  teachers  is 
well  established  in  France,  and  they  are  found  in  every  institution  in  which  lec- 
turing is  practiced  to  a  great  extent  as  a  means  of  instruction ;  they  prevent  the 
burthen  of  teaching  from  falling  upon  professors,  whose  duty  it  is  to  be  engaged  in 
advancing,  as  well  as  in  propagating  science,  and  who  would  be  prevented  from 
following  one  or  other  of  these  honorable  and  useful  careers,  by  having  the  duty 
of  teaching  superadded  to  that  of  lecturing.  So  well  is  the  necessity  of  relieving 
the  professor  understood,  that  in  all  courses  requiring  preparation,  special  persons 
are  appointed,  called  preparers,  who  take  off  this  burthen  also  from  the  professor. 
The  result  is,  that  many  men  of  high  eminence  are  thus  enabled  to  diffuse  their 
knowledge  among  students  by  lecturing,  and  are  willing  to  do  so,  though  they 
have  other  and  more  profitable  employments,  to  which  they  would  exclusively 
confine  themselves,  if  this  were  connected  with  teaching  by  interrogation  and  the 
task  of  preparing  experimental  illustrations.  The  pupil  is  thus  greatly  the  gainer, 
and  has  at  the  same  time  the  special  examination  upon  the  lecturers  which  is  so 
necessary  to  complete  the  instruction,  and  to  which  a  repeater  is  entirely  compe- 
tent. Young  men  of  talent  seek  the  situations  of  repeaters  as  the  best  method  of 
showing  their  particular  qualifications,  and  the  most  certain  road  to  a  professor- 
ship. For  each  recitation  the.  pupil  receives  a  mark,  and  the  roll  of  the  class  with 
these  marks  being  preserved,  its  indications  are  combined  with  the  results  of  the 
examination,  to  decide  upon  the  fitness  of  a  pupil  when  he  conies  forward  for  a 
diploma. 

The  graphic  exercises  consist  in  the  drawing  of  ornamental  work,  in  India  ink 
drawing,  in  drawing  with  the  steel  pen  and  instruments,  and  in  sketching  the 
diagrams  of  the  lectures  to  a  scale.  Great  importance  is  attached  to  this  part  of 
the  course,  and  much  time  spent  in  it.  The  rooms  for  these  exercises  are  con- 
veniently arranged,  and  the  pupils  are  superintended  during  them  by  a  professor 
or  a  repeater,  and  visited  occasionally  by  the  director  of  studies  or  his  deputies. 
The  drawing-tables  are  so  arranged  that  the  pupils  stand  while  at  work,  which  at 
their  age  is  very  desirable. 

The  arrangements  for  chemical  manipulation  by  the  students  are  very  complete ; 
they  have  access  not  only  to  the  laboratories  of  the  two  professors,  but  to  others 
which  are  devoted  to  special  branches.  During  the  first  year  every  student  is 
employed  in  laboratory  duty  once  a  week,  and  has  also  the  opportunity  of  per- 
forming some  of  the  principal  physical  experiments.  They  are  superintended, 
while  thus  occupied,  by  repeaters.  During  the  first  half  year  of  the  second  course 
the  students  are  called,  in  turn,  to  general  duty  in  the  laboratory  ;  and  during  the 
second  half  of  the  same  year,  and  the  whole  of  the  third,  the  two  sections  who 
follow  the  courses  of  chemistry  applied  to  the  arts  and  metallurgy,  are  employed 
in  manipulations  connected  with  them.  There  is  an  officer  for  their  superintend- 
ence, called  the  director  (chef)  of  the  chemical  exercises,  who  is  subordinate  to 
the  professor  of  chemical  analysis.  The  opportunities  thus  afforded  of  acquiring 
a  general  practice  under  the  guidance  of  the  distinguished  professors  of  this  school 
are  invaluable,  and  form  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  establishment. 

The  materials  for  constructing  models  of  some  of  the  more  useful  works,  and 
apparatus  relating  to  the  arts,  are  furnished  to  the  pupils,  and  used  under  the  di- 
rection of  their  instructors. 

The  annual  number  of  students  entering  varies  from  130  to  160.  They  work 
eight  hours  and  a  half  in  the  college,  and  four  at  their  residences.  Four  inspec- 
tors are  constantly  occupied  in  surveying,  independently  of  those  superintending 
the  graphic  department. 

*  The  above  account  of  the  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  MANUFACTURES,  at  Paris,  is  copied  from 
Barnard's  National  Education  in  Europe,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  the  Polytechnic  School  of  France  at  Paris,  the  Central  Institute  of  Arts  at  Berlin,  and 
the  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Vienna. 


326  SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS. 

Having  thus  considered  the  universal  prevalence  in  Europe  of  sci- 
entific schools,  their  acknowledged  value,  and  their  comprehensive 
scope,  let  us  briefly  inquire  into  the  wants  of  our  own  country,  now 
almost  wholly  deficient  in  the  higher  and  lower  schools  of  special 
training,  with  the  exception  of  law,  medical,  theological,  and  normal 
seminaries. 

If  England,  from  which  we  annually  import  so  large  an  amount  of 
manufactured  articles,  became  alarmed  about  its  industrial  prosperity, 
what  may  we  not  fear  ?  We  are  a  new  country,  it  is  true,  doing  in 
years  the  work  of  centuries ;  but,  for  this  very  reason,  every  day  of 
labor  should  be  spent  in  the  most  effective  manner.  No  time  should 
be  lost  in  trying  experiments  whose  value  has  already  been  decided 
upon  elsewhere.  The  science  as  well  as  the  experience  of  every  other 
nation  should  be  brought  to  use  in  our  own.  Communication  with 
the  old  world  is  so  frequent,  that  it  is  not  only  our  loss  but  our  fault, 
if  we  fail  to  make  the  most  of  European  discoveries.  But,  how  do 
we  compare,  in  most  of  our  manufactures,  with  France,  England,  Bel- 
gium, and  Germany  ?  Let  the  commercial  statistics  of  our  country 
reply.  The  slightest  examination  of  such  tables  will  show  that  for 
many  articles  not  merely  of  luxury,  but  of  almost  universal  consump- 
tion we  are  wholly  dependent  upon  European  countries. 

The  recent  Exhibitions  of  Industry  and  Art,  made  in  London,  New 
York,  and  Paris,  have  confirmed  this  fact.  Upon  these  occasions,  op- 
portunities of  a  favorable  character  have  been  afforded  for  the  compari- 
son of  the  industrial  attainments  of  different  lands ;  and,  although,  in 
London  and  Paris,  our  own  countrymen  did  not  avail  themselves  to 
the  full  extent  of  the  advantages  of  such  an  exhibition,  yet,  any  one 
who  was  acquainted  with  the  character  of  American  manufactures, 
needed  only  a  glance  at  the  displays  which  were  made  by  European 
nations,  to  be  convinced  that,  notwithstanding  the  number  of  ingenious 
inventions  which  have  originated  in  this  country,  the  productions  of 
our  shops  and  factories  are,  except  a  few  cheap  staple  goods,  inferior 
to  what  are  made  at  a  corresponding  cost  abroad.  There  are  many 
branches  of  useful  manufacture  in  which,  as  yet,  we  have  scarcely 
made  a  commencement. 

Now,  to  what  is  the  undeveloped  state  of  our  mines,  the  imperfect 
character  of  our  agriculture,  the  inferior  quality  of  our  manufactures, 
and  the  disappearance  of  our  forests,  to  be  attributed?  .Surely,  not 
to  the  lack  of  general  intelligence  among  the  people,  to  the  want  of 
popular  instruction,  unjust  laws,  nor  to  any  deficiency  in  natural  re- 
sources. Without  boasting,  we  may  claim  to  be  a  nation  of  enter- 
prising and  industrious  freemen,  in  a  land  preeminently  favored  in  its 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS.  327 

productive  capacity.  But,  have  we  the  educational  means  which  we 
require  ?  Granting  that  our  common  schools,  our  colleges,  and  our 
"  professional "  institutions  are,  for  the  most  part,  excellent,  are  there 
not  great  wants  still  unsupplied  ?  Even  with  the  good  beginnings 
which  have  been  made  in  several  places,  what  have  we  in 
our  whole  land  to  compare  with  the  Scientific  Schools  of  European 
countries?  Why  is  it  that  scores  of  young  men  are  annually 
visiting  Europe  to  pursue  those  special  courses  of  instruction 
which  are  there  so  liberally  provided?  Why  is  it  that  the 
munificent  endowment  of  Mr.  LAWRENCE,  at  Cambridge,  has 
immediately  attracted  so  many  pupils  ?  Why  is  it  that  the 
Schools  of  Engineering  and  Applied  Chemistry,  commenced  at  New 
Haven,  without  any  funds  for  the  endowment  of  professorships, 
the  erection  of  buildings,  the  collection  of  museums,  and  the  purchase 
of  apparatus,  have  already  been  so  well  attended  ?  Because  the  young 
men  of  this  country,  as  the  professions  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology 
become  crowded,  are  eager  for  the  proper  training  to  excel  in  other 
sciences,  and  also  because  the  producers  of  every  kind,  are  rapidly 
learning  that  for  a  long  and  successful  competition  with  the  manufac- 
turers of  Europe,  the  same  union  must  be  established  in  this  country 
which  exists  abroad,  between  Applied  and  Theoretical  Science. 

It  is  a  characteristic  of  our  citizens  to  do  upon  a  liberal  scale  what- 
ever is  attempted.  Our  colleges,  our  popular  schools,  our  public  libra- 
ries, our  observatories  have  often  received  munificent  endowments.  In 
the  present  condition  of  our  country,  it  is  not  less  important  that  a 
Scientific  School  of  the  highest  order  should  receive  a  corresponding 
degree  of  sympathy  and  support.  Anything  less  than  a  liberal  provis- 
ion for  its  wants,  would  but  half  accomplish  the  task  that  is  to  be 
performed.  Large  investments,  on  the  other  hand,  will  re-act  most 
efficiently  on  the  welfare  of  the  land. 

With  the  greatest  wisdom,  the  Fathers  of  New  England,  in  the 
earliest  days  of  their  colonial  existence,  commenced  not  merely  the 
school  for  elementary  instruction,  but  the  grammar  school,  and  the 
college,  in  which  more  elevated  departments  of  knowledge  might 
thoroughly  be  taught.  In  those  branches  of  science  which  have  been 
discovered  since  their  day,  we  need  to  follow  their  example.  The 
rudiments  of  science  are  already  taught  in  various  institutions 
and  experimental  knowledge  is  attained  in  the  shop  and  the  field. 
But,  more  than  this  is  needed.  We  need  higher  courses  of  instruc- 
tion, which,  alone,  will  secure  our  continued  advancement,  or  even  our 
permanent  prosperity. 

It  has  been  sagely  said  that  nothing  is  more  prolific  in  utilities 


328 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS. 


than  abstractions.  Of  this  truth,  the  whole  history  of  science 
is  an  illustration,  its  generalizations  being  scarcely  conceived 
in  the  mind  of  the  philosopher,  before  the  practical  world  has  made 
therefrom  the  most  serviceable  deductions.  A  school  which,  rising 
above  those  common  places  which  are  universally  known,  should  sup- 
ply an  education  of  the  most  elevated  order,  and  should  stimulate 
original  inquiries  and  investigations,  would  confer  unspeakable  bene- 
fits upon  every  portion  of  our  country,  and  would  not  be  without  its 
influence  upon  the  progress  of  humanity. 

NOTE. — For  the  further  illustration  of  this  subject  we  merely  add  in  this  connection,  a  list 
of  the  Fach-Schulen,  or  schools  of  Special  Professional  Training,  which  are  established  in 
Germany.  Schools  of  Law,  Medicine,  Theology,  and  Teachers'  Seminaries,  are  not  included 
in  the  list. 

SCHOOLS  OF  ARCHITECTURE.— Berlin,  Breslau,  Chemnitz,  Crefeld,  Dantzic,  Dresden,  Eise- 
nach, Erfurt,  Halberstadt,  Hechingen,  Holzminden,  Kaltennordheim,  Carlsruhe,  Kb'nigsberg, 
Leipsic,  Magdeburg,  Munich,  Nienburg,  Plauen,  Tubingen,  Weimar,  and  Zittau.  Total,  22. 

SCHOOLS  OF  MINING. — Berlin,  Claustbal,  Freiberg,  Halberstadt,  Leoben,  Przibram,  Steben, 
Total,  7. 

SCHOOLS  OF  FORESTRY. — Aschaffenburg,  Ausser,  Berlin,  Brunswick,  Clausthal,  Dreissig- 
acker,  Diiben,  Eisenach,  Freiburg,  Giessen,  Hohenheim,  Carlsruhe,  Kiel,  Konigsberg,  Maria- 
brunn,  near  Vienna,  Melsungen,  Neustadt-Eberswalde,  Tharandt.  Total,  18. 

SCHOOLS  OF  COMMERCE.— Berlin,  Bremen,  Chemnitz,  Darmstadt,  Dessau,  Dresden,  Fiirth, 
Hamburg,  Insterburg,  Carlsruhe,  Leipsic,  Liibec,  Magdeburg,  Mannheim,  Nuremberg, 
Rostock,  Rothenburg,  Triest,  Vienna.  Total,  19. 

MILITARY  SCHOOLS.— Beusberg,  Berlin,  (three),  Brunswick,  Culm,  Darmstadt.  Dresden, 
(two),  Hainburg,  Hanover,  (two),  Carlsruhe,  Cassel,  Cracow,  Ludwigsberg,  Marburg,  in 
Austria,  Munich,  New  Cilli,  Oldenburg,  Olmiitz,  Potsdam,  Stralsund,  Wahlstadt,  near  Lieg- 
nitz,  Vienna,  Neustadt,  near  Vienna,  (four),  Wiesbaden.  Total,  30. 

SCHOOLS  OF  AGRICULTURE. — Amberg,  Ansbach,  Aschaffenberg,  Augsburg,  Bamberg,  Bay- 
reuth,  Beberbeck,  Carlshof,  near  Rostock,  Darmstadt.,  Dreissigacker,  Dresden,  Eldena,  near 
Greifswald,  Erlangen,  Freysing,  Hof,  Hohenheim,  Jena,  Kaiserslautern,  Cannstatt,  Carls- 
ruhe, Kaubeuern.  Kempten,  Landau,  Landshut,  Mockern,  near  Leipsic,  Moglin,  near  Wrie- 
zen,  Munich,  Neudeckerhof,  Nordlingen,  Nuremberg,  Passau,  Poppelsdorf,  near  Bonn, 
Proscow,  in  Silesia,  Regensburg,  Regenwalde,  Schleisheim,  Schweinfurt,  Speier,  Straubin- 
gen,  Tharandt,  Waldau,  near  Konigsberg,  Weiheustephan,  Wiesbaden,  Wunsiedel,  Wiirz- 
burg,  Zweibriicken.  Total,  46. 

SCHOOLS  OF  Music. — Hamburg,  Cologne,  Leipsic,  Luxemburg,  Munich,  Prague,  Vienna. 
Total,  7. 

SCHOOLS  OF  NAVIGATION.— Bremen,  Cattaro,  Dantzic,  Emden,  Fiume,  Grabow,  near 
Stettin,  Hamburg,  Hanover,  Konigsberg,  Liibec,  Lussinpiccolo,  Memel,  Papenburg,  Pillau, 
Ragusa,  Rostock,  Spalato,  Stettin,  Timmel,  Triest,  Wustrow,  Zara.  Total,  22. 

VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. — Berlin,  Dresden,  Giessen,  Gottingen,  Hanover,  Carlsruhe,  Mar- 
burg, Munich,  Miinster,  Schwerin,  Stuttgardt,  Vienna.  Total,  12. 

SURGICAL  SCHOOLS.  (Distinct  from  medical  faculties  in  the  Universities). — Berlin,  (two), 
Brunswick,  Breslau,  Dresden,  Frankfort,  Hamburg,  Hanover,  Laibach,  Linz,  Magdeburg, 
Salzburg,  Vienna.  Total,  13. 

POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOLS. — Augsburg,  Berlin,  (two),  Bochum,  Brunswick,  Breslau,  Briinn, 
Chemnitz,  Danzic,  Dresden,  (three),  Echternach,  Elberfeld,  Erfurt,  (two),  Gratz,  Hanover 
Jena,  Carlsruhe,  Cassel,  Konigsberg,  Magdeburg,  Munich,  Nuremberg,  Prague,  Rostock^ 
Stuttgardt,  Vienna,  Wiesbaden.  Totalt  30. 

SUMMARY. 

Architecture 22                        Music, 7 

Mining,  .    .  ' 7                        Navigation, 22 

Forestry, 18                         Veterinary, 12 

Commerce, 19                        Surgery, 13 

Military,     ..-....•  30                        Polytechnic, 30 

Agriculture 46  Total,    226 


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UCD  LIBRARY 

DUE  SEP  29  1983 


LIBRARY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  DAVIS 

Book  Slip-50m-8,'63(D9954s4)458 


.PAMPHLET  BINDER 

^T  Syracuse,  N.  Y.    . 
E   Stockton.  Calif.    '* 


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Call  Number: 

T105 
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